What is succession in the context of ecosystems?

Succession is the process by which ecosystems change over time due to changes in the environment, causing the plant and animal species present to change.

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What is a pioneer community, and what are some of the key characteristics of pioneer species?

A pioneer community is first stage of succession in which pioneer species colonise an inhospitable environment and make it more suitable for other species, facilitating further stages of succession.


Pioneer species can usually:

  1. Reproduce asexually
  2. Produce wind-dispersed seeds
  3. Germinate rapidly
  4. Photosynthesise
  5. Fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
  6. Tolerate extreme conditions

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What is an intermediate community?

An intermediate community occurs when the soil improves and supports new species of plants, known as secondary colonisers.


As conditions continue to improve, new species arrive.

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What is a climax community?

A climax community is a stable ecosystem with a balanced equilibrium of species, characterised by a small number of dominant plant and animal species that are rarely replaced by new species.

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How does succession affect biodiversity?

Biodiversity increases during succession, peaking in mid-succession, but decreases in the climax community due to dominant species outcompeting others.


Food webs are more complex when biodiversity is higher

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How does succession affect the abiotic environment?

During succession, key species change the abiotic factors making the environment less hostile.


Soil forms and retains more water, nutrients become more plentiful, and plants provide shelter. This makes the environment more suitable for other species.

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What is the difference between primary succession and secondary succession?

  1. Primary succession - occurs on new or exposed land with no soil or organic material
  2. Secondary succession - occurs where soil is present, but there are no plant or animal species

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How does animal succession occur?

Animal succession occurs alongside plant succession. Primary consumers like insects arrive first, followed by secondary consumers once a suitable food source is established.

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What is deflected succession, and what are some examples of human activities that may lead to deflected succession?

Deflected succession is when human activities stop the natural flow of succession, preventing the ecosystem from reaching a climax community. The final stage formed is known as a plagioclimax.


Examples of human activities that may lead to deflected succession include:

  1. Grazing and trampling of vegetation by domesticated animals
  2. Removing existing vegetation to plant crops
  3. Burning for forest clearance

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What is a seral stage in the context of succession?

A seral stage is each step in the process of succession.


At each seral stage, key species change the abiotic factors, making it more suitable for the existence of other species.

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